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Formes fixes

This is a collective designation for the three chief forms of late medieval French poetry and music: ballade, virelai, and rondeau. Their main period was the 14th century, under the poet-composer Guillaume de Machaut. After 1450 they gradually declined in importance, being replaced by freer and more varied forms. All three forms have a refrain, which, however, has an entirely different function in the rondeau from that in the two other forms. The presence of a refrain as well as etymological considerations ("ballare," to dance; "virer," to turn round; and "rond," round) suggest that originally they may have been dancing songs.

Ballade

The poem usually has three stanzas, each of seven or eight lines, the last one or two of which are identical in all the stanzas, thus forming a refrain. The form of the stanza is: a b a b c d E or a b a b c d E F (capital letters indicate the refrain), a scheme that, so far as the music concerned, can be simplified as follows: a a b C (a = ab; b=cd; C=refrain).

The Ballade plays a prominent role in the work of Machaut, who treated it as a polyphonic composition of great refinement and subtlety. His example was followed by the French and Italian composers of the late 14th century. The form continued to be cultivated, though much more sparingly, during the first half of the 15th century by composers such as Dufay, and Binchois.

The Ballade form, without refrain, was adopted by the minnesingers under the name Bar. The ballade is not to be confused with the Italian "ballata" form, which is entirely different.

Virelai

Also called "chanson balladee." Consisted of a refrain (R) that usually alternates with three stanzas (S): R-S1-R-S2-R-S3-R. The stanzas begin with two rhyming versicles and close with a versicle paralleling the refrain. The musical structure corresponds exactly to that of the poem, the two parallel versicles being sung to the same music and the closing versicle to that of the refrain. The entire musical structure is A b b a A b b a A b b a A b b a.

This same form appears in a strict version in the 14th century Italian ballata and in modified types like the laude and cantigas.

Rondeau

In its simplest, 13th-century form, consists of eight short lines with a rather artificial repeat structure, line 1 being identical with lines 4 and 7, and line 2 with line 8. Lines 1 and 2 therefore form a refrain that recurs in part in the middle and complete at the end. Music is composed for the refrain only (line 1=a, line 2=b) and is repeated according to the scheme A B a A a b A B (capital letters indicating the refrain). Of the formes fixes, the rondeau was the only one widely used after 1400.

A triolet (/ˈtraɪ.əlᵻt/ or US: /ˌtriː.əˈleɪ/) is almost always a stanza poem of eight lines, though stanzas with as few as seven lines and as many as nine or more have appeared in its history. Its rhyme scheme is ABaAabAB and in 19th century English triolets often all lines are in iambic tetrameter, though in traditional French triolets from the 17th century on the second, sixth and eighth lines tend to be iambic trimeters followed by one amphibrachic foot each. In French terminology, a line ending in an iambic foot was denoted as masculine, while a line ending in an amphibrachic foot was called feminine. Depending on the language and era, other meters are seen, even in French. The first, fourth and seventh lines are identical, as are the second and final lines, thereby making the initial and final couplets identical as well. In a traditional French triolet, the second and third non-repeating lines rhyme with the repeating first, fourth, and seventh lines, while the non-repeating sixth line rhymes with the second and eighth repeating lines. However, especially in German triolets of the 18th and 19th centuries, one will see this pattern often violated.[1]

"Birds At Winter"

Around the house the flakes fly faster,

And all the berries now are gone

From holly and cotoneaster

Around the house. The flakes fly! – faster

Shutting indoors the crumb-outcaster

We used to see upon the lawn

Around the house. The Flakes fly faster

And all the berries now are gone!

Thomas Hardy

Notes: Berksian Sonnet

RESPONSE SONNET

this is what happened

why

complaint, blame, pain, regret

you are wrong

this is what you should have done

a b b a a b b a - c d e c d e

pentameter tetrameter

DIZAIN / HUITAIN

dizain

a b a b b c c d c d french

a b a b b c a c d d sydney

huitain

a b a b b c b c french / english

a b b a a c a c french / english

a b a b a c a c spanish

a b b a a c c a spanish

a a b a a b c c enlace

a b a b c c c b romantique

dizain

a

b this is what happened

a

b _______________________________

c why

c _______________________________

d

e complaint, blame , pain, regret

e

d

huitain

a a a

b a b you are wrong

a b b

b a a _______________________________

c a a this is what is right

c b c this is what you should have done

c c a

b c c

BERKSIAN SONNET

8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 6 6 6 6 6 6

a b b a a b b a c d e c d e

c d d c e f g e f g

complaint || reply

huitain

a b a b b c b c french / english

a b b a a c a c french / english

a b a b a c a c spanish

a b b a a c c a spanish

a a b a a b c c enlace

a b a b c c c b romantique

a b a b c d c d

a b a b c d c d

a b b a c d d c

a a b b c c d d

a a a b c c c d

sestain

a b c a b c

a b a c b c

c d e c d e

c d c e d e

c c d d e e

c d c d f f

c d d c f f

c c d e e d tail rhyme

c c c d c d

Welsh Prosody

The harmony of Welsh poetry is accomplished through the controlled echoing of sounds through alliteration, assonance or consonance. These sounds are meant to offset any over-emphasis of the main rhyme, to create balance of sound.

Most know that in English, alliteration, assonance and consonance are normally contained within a line. In Welsh poetry they can criss-cross within a stanza and are not always contained within a line. To alliterate is to match the initial stressed consonant sounds, assonance is matched vowel sounds, and consonance, simplified, is matching end consonant sounds.

05 Englyn cyrch

Englyn cyrch, én-glin circh (two rhyme englyn), the 5th codified Official Welsh Meter, an Englyn is verse that employs cyrch which means internal rhyme.

The defining features of the Englyn cyrch are:

stanzaic, written in any number of quatrains made up of 2 Cywydd couplets, the Cywydd deuair hirion and Awdl gywydd.

syllablic, 7 syllable lines.

rhymed, AaBA with the end syllable of L3 rhymed somewhere in the first half of L4.

x x x x x x A (stressed last syllable)

x x x x x X a (unstressed last syllable)

x x x x x x B

x x B x x x A ( B ) can be in the 2nd 3rd or 4th syllables

09 Awdl gywydd

Awdl gywydd owdl gów-wid (rhymed cywcdd)the 9th codified Official Welsh Meter, a Cywydd, was rarely used by the chief poets or house bards who preferred Cywydd deuair hirion, but it continued to be employed by the lesser order of poets of the 14th century and has been revived by modern Welsh poets.

The defining features of the Awdl gywydd are:

stanzaic, written in any number of couplets, it is often written in pairs as a quatrain.

syllabic, 7 syllable lines.

rhymed, the end syllable of L1 is repeated as rhyme at the pause in the early part (2nd, 3rd, or 4th syllable) of L2. The end syllable of L2 is a linking rhyme from couplet to couplet.

x x x x x x A

x x A x x x B (A could shift position slightly)

x x x x x x C

x x C x x x B (C could shift position slightly)

12 Cywydd llosgyrnog

Cywydd llosgyrnog, ców-idd llos-gr-notheg, 12th codified ancient Welsh Meter, a Cywydd, is composed in sixains. It is speculated that the Welsh poets learned this meter from a common medieval Latin hymn form.

The Cywydd llosgyrnog is:

stanzaic, written in any number of sixains.

syllabic, the sixain is made up of 8-8-7-8-8-7 syllable lines.

rhymed, L1 and L2 end-rhyme is echoed somewhere in the middle of L3 (3rd, 4th, or 5th syllables). L4 and L5 end-rhyme is echoed somewhere in the middle of L6. L3 and L6 end rhyme.

x x x x x x x A

x x x x x x x A

x x A x x x B (A could shift position slightly)

x x x x x x x C

x x x x x x x C

x x C x x x B (C could shift position slightly)

13 Rhupunt

Rhupunt, rhée-pint is as old as Welsh poetry and is found in the earliest writings in the Black Book of Carmarthen (late 12th century). It is the 13th codified Welsh meter, an Awdl,

The Rhupunt is:

written in a single line with optional length. It may be written in 3, 4, or 5, four syllable phrases. The phrases are mono-rhymed, all except the last phrase.

most often paired with another rhupunt to form a rhyming couplet.

stanzaic, the stanza length is optional since the line can be separated by phrase into a triplet, quatrain or cinquain, depending on the number of phrases written.

rhymed. The internal mono-rhyme changes from line to line or if separated, from stanza to stanza but the end syllable of the line is a linking rhyme from line to line or if separated, stanza to stanza.

xxx A xxx A (xxx A) (xxx A) xxx B

xxx C xxx C (xxx C) (xxx C) xxx B

16 Clogyrnach

Clogyrnach clog-ír-nach, the 16th codified Welsh meter, an Awdl, is associated with what I can only assume is the name of an ancient poet, Cynddelw and is framed with a cyhydedd fer couplet combined with a longer form. It is rarely used by today's poets.

The defining features of the Clogymach are:

stanzaic, written in any number of quintets, combining a cyhydedd fer (a rhymed couplet of 8 syllable lines) and a tercet of two 5 syllable lines followed by one 6 syllable line of 2 equal parts, 3 syllables each.

rhymed, rhyme scheme AABBA. The 1st phrase of L5 rhymes with the previous line and the 2nd phrase rhymes with cyhydedd fer couplet.

flexible, L5 of the cinquain can be added to the end of L4 creating a quatrain or can be broken into 2 separate lines creating a sixain.

x x x x x x x A

x x x x x x x A

x x x x B

x x x x B

x x B x x A

x x x x x x x A

x x x x x x x A

x x x x B

x x x x B

x x B

x x A x x x x x x x A

x x x x x x x A

x x x x B

x x x x B x x B x x A

19 Toddaid

Toddaid, todd-eyed is the 19th codified Welsh meter, an Awdl, and an uneven couplet often written in combination with other meters especially the 9 syllable couplet, cyhydedd hir.

The Toddaid is:

stanzac, written in any number of couplets.

syllabic, L1 is a 10 syllable line and L2 is a 9 syllable line.

rhymed, the main rhyme aa - cc - dd etc.

composed with gair cyrch following the main rhyme and caesura of L1. The gair cyrch end rhyme is echoed in the first half of L2 in secondary rhyme, assonance or consonance.

sometimes written in a shortened version of 16 syllables, L1 is 10 syllables and L2 is only 6 syllables which is called a toddaid byr.

toddaid couplets

x x x x x x x A - x b

x x x x b x x x A

x x x x x x x C - x d

x x x d x x x x c

a toddaid byr

x x x x x x x A x b

x x x b x A